The ice-free landscapes

Polygon soils are widespread in areas with continuous permafrost. Polygon soils near Brønlundhus in Peary Land. BO ELBERLING, 2021
The landscape can change rapidly when the permafrost thaws. This is a so-called reverse thaw slide, where the surface of an entire landscape slides down a slope due to gravity. This exposes an ever-increasing part of the permafrost, and the process can thus be self-reinforcing.
BO ELBERLING, 2013

The landscapes are determined by their underlying parent material and shaped by the erosion of repeated glacial periods and the redistribution of sediments. During the last glacial period maximum about 20,000 years ago, ice covered virtually all of the land and continued well beyond the current coastline. During the glacial period, large amounts of water were bound as ice, which weighed down the land, and at the maximum extent of the glacial period, the sea level was approx. 150 m lower than now.

With its area of 57.000 km², Peary Land is the northernmost part of Greenland, named after Robert E. Peary’s expedition (1891‑1892). The area stretches from Victoria Fjord in the west to Independence Fjord in the south and southeast and from the ice sheet in the south to the Arctic Ocean in the north. Peary Land is almost ice-free and part of the National Park in North and East Greenland. Many signs of early settlements have been found in the area.
BO ELBERLING 2016

During and immediately after the glacial period, ice and meltwater brought large amounts of sediment from the central parts of country and out to the areas that today make up the relatively shallow banks with water depths of less than 200 m off the coast. Most Greenland landscapes with mountain peaks, deep valleys, round rock landscapes, moraine landscapes, dead ice landscapes and meltwater plains, fjords and archipelagos today are a result of these processes. Since the retreat of the ice, coastal areas have slowly been uplifted. In many places along the coast, the remnants of former coastlines are seen in the form of beach ridges and coastal cliffs at an altitude of up to 140 metres.

Permafrost

Permafrost drilling at Zackenberg in Northeast Greenland is a prerequisite for characterising the permafrost’s content of frozen layers. The release of meltwater followed by erosion with a future thaw is a cause of concern – not the least in relation to infrastructure. Moreover, the decomposition of organic matter can contribute to the release of greenhouse gases.
BO ELBERLING, 2012

The ice sheet insulates so well against the winter cold that the Earth’s own heat production ensures that there is no permafrost under the ice sheet. Permafrost – soil and sediments that have been frozen for at least two years in a row – is thus only found in the ice-free areas where it was formed when the ice was fully retreated after the last glacial period about 10,000 years ago. Since then, most of the permafrost in Greenland has increased in thickness. At Qeqertarsuaq (Disko) in West Greenland, the depth of the permafrost has been measured at 350 m and at Qaanaaq in North Greenland at 450 m below the Earth’s surface. In South Greenland, permafrost is only found in depressions or high up in the mountains.

The landscape formed until the end of the last glacial period has subsequently been characterised by repeated freeze-thaw processes and snow – an interplay which has created very special periglacial landscape forms. Solifluction occurs, for example, where the upper soil layers move on top of the underlying frozen soil, while ice wedges form when meltwater seeps into frost cracks in the soil and subsequently freezes and expands repeatedly, winter after winter. This forms wedge-shaped ice bodies, seen from above as polygon-shaped patterns.

Changes in landscapes are also linked to climate change. When the permafrost thaws, the meltwater runs off, parts of the landscape collapse and erosion increases. Such physical degradation of the landscape can accelerate the consequences of climate change and has already had significant consequences for infrastructure in some places in Greenland, when, for example, buildings, pipelines, roads and debris sites are destabilised or destroyed.

Release of greenhouse gases

Today, the ice sheet is retreating, and in the new exposed landscapes new permafrost is forming. Pioneer plants immigrate rapidly and spark soil development in a matter of years. The immigration of plants and the formation of the soil environment are closely linked. In the soil, carbon accumulates from the plants, and at the same time, there is a constant decomposition of both the soil’s pool of organic matter and a weathering of the soil’s other particles. The degradation of plant material is slower than plant production during the growing season due to the generally cold conditions. This is why Arctic soils are generally characterised by an accumulation of carbon. However, as the landscapes in Greenland are relatively young, the amounts of accumulated organic matter are limited with peat formations of typically up to half a metre compared to much older landscapes such as in e.g. Siberia, where peat formations can be more than 10 metres thick.

The Arctic has long been in focus as a source of greenhouse gases due to the accumulation of organic matter in the soil environment and a warming that exceeds the average global warming. However, there are many indications that the Greenland nature on land does not make a significant contribution to the atmosphere’s increasing content of greenhouse gases. The natural carbon dioxide account virtually balances (i.e. the plants absorb the same amount as is released from the soil), the uptake of methane in the widespread dry soils exceeds the release of methane from wetlands and the amounts of nitrogen in the soil environment are so limited that the release of nitrous oxide is very small.

Weathering of the landscapes

The landscapes are also slowly undergoing physical and chemical degradation. Due to large variation in the geological parent material, there is a major difference in how quickly the landscapes weather and thus decompose. In many places, the Earth’s surface consists of bedrock, and in those places the weathering is slow. At Qeqertarsuaq (Disko) in West Greenland, on the other hand, the parent material is basalts, volcanic rocks, which weather faster and release large amounts of iron, which colour the landscapes and rivers reddish. In North Greenland, the source material is carbonate rocks, e.g. dolomite which weathers much faster than bedrock of, for example, gneiss.

The landscapes are also being transformed today. Earthquakes, landslides and calving icebergs can cause tsunamis and subsequent floods. In summer 2017, a landslide caused a 90-metre-high tsunami wave, which was 10 metres high when it hit the small fishing town of Nuugaatsiaq in West Greenland and unfortunately washed houses and four people into the sea more 30 kilometres away from the landslide.

Flora and fauna on land

Arctic foxes and muskox carcasses at Zackenberg in Northeast Greenland. The arctic fox, like other terrestrial mammals, is well adapted to the cold climate with a thick and heat-insulating coat. Furthermore, the body is more compact, and extremities such as ears, snout and tail are shorter than in its more southern relatives. All to minimise heat loss.
LARS HOLST HANSEN, 2011

Life on land largely disappeared in Greenland during the last glacial period, except perhaps from a few lowland areas and mountain peaks surrounded by ice. Animal and plant life on land is therefore today determined by the species’ ability to migrate and adapt to the physical conditions, including the extreme climatic conditions with low winter temperatures, snow, ice and the dark polar winter.

The diversity of species on land in Greenland is generally lower than southern rural areas and it generally decreases from south to north. Local differences in climate, soil and nutrient availability give rise to different habitat types (e.g. between coast and inland, and between mountains and valleys). The Greenland flora and fauna is gradually changing from a lush birch forest scrub in sub-Arctic South Greenland to the polar desert in High Arctic North Greenland.

As the climate warms, the distribution patterns of flora and fauna are expected to change. Bushes, shrubs and trees grow larger and increase their distribution when there is enough water and nutrients. With higher temperatures, southern species are expected to move north and shift the distribution of more coldadapted species, which as far as possible must move further north or up mountain sides to follow the temperature and precipitation conditions to which they are adapted.

The breeding season is short, so it is important to be ready when conditions are right. The arrival of migratory birds, calving of caribou and muskoxen, and the emergence of insects are therefore carefully attuned to the changing seasons and the growing season of the plants. A balance that is challenged by climate change and a premature and more varied melting of the snow cover.

Terrestrial mammals

Grazers such as caribou and arctic hare depend on access to food all year round, even in the cold, dark winter months. Icing events, where a layer of ice forms on vegetation or snow, can prevent animals from reaching food and lead to increased mortality levels. Icing events are believed to be the cause of the extinction of caribou in Northeast Greenland around 1900.
LARS GEJL/BIOFOTO/RITZAU SCANPIX, U.Å.

Greenland only has seven naturally occurring species of terrestrial mammals: muskox, caribou, polar wolf, arctic fox, stoat, arctic hare and collared lemming (polar bear is considered a marine mammal). This is due to the country’s isolated location with limited immigration opportunities via the passage offered by the sea ice to other land areas.

Polar wolves are few in number and occur sporadically in Northwest, North and Northeast Greenland. Muskox, stoat and collared lemming are native only to North and Northeast Greenland, caribou only to West Greenland (after they went extinct in Northeast Greenland around 1900), while arctic fox and arctic hare are widespread in most of the country. Caribou and muskoxen have been released in several places in West Greenland, including at Kangerlussuaq, where the muskox population has grown to several thousands of animals since the release of 27 animals in 1962‑1963.

There are no reptiles and amphibians in Greenland.

Insects and other small animals

The number of species among insects and other small animals is uncertain. Currently, Greenland has more than 1,200 registered species of insects, spiders, mites and millipedes. Inland areas with many hours of sun and overall high summer temperatures have a much higher diversity of insects and other small animals than the coastal zone. Insect species and small animals have immigrated to Greenland from both North America and Europe, but since Greenland is an isolated island, the diversity is quite low.

Vegetation

The flora in the South Greenland valleys, such as Blomsterdalen (Flower Valley) at Narsarssuaq, is among the lushest in the country. A rich profusion of flowers and metre-high willow trees are a common sight in the most protected valleys of the inland areas.
ANDERS MØLLER, 2008

The vegetation is Arctic, meaning that it consists primarily of perennial herbs and dwarf shrubs. The tallest species are willow and birch trees, which in areas offering a high level of protection can grow more than 2 metres tall. Forests of low birch trees are only found in the inner fjord areas of South Greenland which are climatically referred to as sub-Arctic. The large expanse of the country creates vastly different living conditions for the plants, and diversity decreases considerably from south to north.

The distribution of species differ biogeographically, since South Greenland is the only region with more eastern species than western species. The distribution of species is determined by differences in plant dispersal possibilities, preferences and physical environment. Some plant species are widespread across different climate zones (e.g. koenigia), while others are associated with a specific habitat type and are only known from a few locations (e.g. elephant’s head). About 520 plant species have been registered, of which about 30 are endemic.

The spread of fungi, lichens and mosses is conditional on the interaction between light, humidity, temperature, substrate and, in the case of fungi, the vegetation. It is estimated that there are approx. 1,600 species of fungi, almost 1.000 lichens and about 600 moss species. The spores of the fungi spread easily with the wind and fungi can therefore be found almost everywhere. Lichens grow on rocks, soil or other bare surfaces and they can withstand low temperatures and drying out for extended periods. Mosses are widespread and depend more on the substrate than on the climate.

The cultural landscapes

peat walls from a winter dwelling at the Innap Nuua site near Sisimiut. The house measured 7×3 m and probably housed four to five families or 20 to 30 persons. The roof, covered with discarded boat skins and peat, was removed when leaving the winter house in spring. In this way of living, the living space was aired out and cleaned before it was used again.
JENS FOG JENSEN, 2016

From north to south, the country’s biotopes range from the High Arctic desert in Peary Land, where muskoxen made for the primary game, to Southwest Greenland’s subarctic environment that allows agriculture. Human immigration and dispersal and the subsequent traffic and trade have primarily taken place along the coast, meaning that especially the communities on the east coast experienced isolation from the more populous areas of west coast for extended periods of time. Early concentrations of towns and settlements occurred in archipelago environments at the mouths of the large fjords and near areas with open water in the icecovered sea areas with rich marine resources.

Raw materials were also obtained in the form of driftwood, soapstone and iron, and the Saqqaq and Dorset cultures exploited deposits of killiaq and other suitable rock types for making stone tools.

Illustration og the Norse settlement Sandnæs/Kilarsarfik in Amealkfjorden near Nuuk with cultivated fields and cattle that are driven to the mountains.
JENS ROSING, U.Å.

Man has for millennia used and interpreted the landscapes in different ways, and traces can be seen everywhere in the form of towns and settlements with remnants of early houses made of peat and stone, stone built caches, shooting blinds and cairns that show the way or were used for battue. On the surface, traces of the earliest people Saqqaq, Independence I and Greenlandic Dorset are usually seen only in the northernmost regions where hearths and stone circles made of the stones used to keep the tent skin close to the ground are visible where they were left perhaps millennia ago.

In West Greenland, it is the Inuit’s and the Norse’s peat and stone-built dwellings and, for the Norse, also churches and storage houses that stand out.

Terrestrial game played a major role in West Greenland between Qeqertarsuup Tunua (Disko Bay) and Nuup Kangerlua (Godthåb Fjord), where the ice-free land areas are home to the largest and most stable caribou populations. In this part of the country, coastal marine resources together with the inland caribou populations form the basis for the characteristic coast-inland economy where life in coastal winter settlements in summer was replaced by living in tents, fishing at estuaries and inland caribou hunting. This lifestyle and the resulting visible remains are preserved and disseminated in the World Heritage site, Aasivissuit – Nipisat. In contrast to the Inuit, the Norse had a pattern of towns and settlements that was strongly oriented towards the inner fjord and the more productive grazing areas. In southern Greenland the cultural landscape of the Norse as well as contemporary sheep farming is protected in the World Heritage site Kujataa.

The towns mostly evolved around the 18th and 19th-century colonies. The trade at the colonists depended largely on the hunters who were able to provide blubber, skin and fish. Later, these locations have presented challenges in terms of establishing airports or providing drinking water or areas for urban development.

10 common plant species

About 500 native plant species can be found in Greenland. The plants can be found in plant belts, which cover the High Arctic, Low Arctic and Subarctic. The number of species decreases the further north you get. The following species have been chosen based on their distribution and how frequently they are observed. Moreover, they represent different forms of growth, e.g. dwarf shrubs, herbs and sedges and are easily recognisable and often characteristic species in the areas in which they grow.

Tikiusaaq (GRL), Campanula gieseckiana (LAT)
Greenland bluebell is found in large parts of the country. The 2‑3 cm edible flower is bluish purple, and the plant, which grows 10‑40 cm tall, cannot be confused with any other.
KATRINE RAUNDRUP. 2009
Ivissuaq nakangasulik (GRL), Luzula spicata (LAT)
Spiked woodrush is a grass-like plant that grows 15‑30 cm tall. It has drooping inflorescences that resemble ears of corn. It is common on dry heaths, in moist substrate and on gravelly rocky slopes.
IDA BOMHOLT DYRHOLM JACOBSEN, 2021
Orpigaq (GRL), Salix glauca (LAT)
Grey willow is found in many areas of Greenland. The species is described as a dwarf shrub, but in sheltered areas it can reach a height of up to 250 cm. It flowers with male and female flowers on separate plants.
KATRINE RAUNDRUP. 2016
Paarnaqutit (GRL), Empetrum nigrum (LAT)
Black crowberry is a dwarf shrub that grows in large areas of Greenland. The flowers are quite small, but the plant produces edible slightly bitter black berries, which are widely used in Greenlandic cooking.
KATRINE RAUNDRUP, 2012
Ukaliusaq (GRL), Eriophorum scheuchzeri (LAT)
The flowers of the Scheuchzer’s cotton grass are quite small. Only once they actually finished flowering do you see the characteristic white top, which is formed by long hairs on the mature seeds. The plant is found on moist substrate throughout the country.
KATRINE RAUNDRUP. 2009
Avaalaqiaq (GRL), Betula nana (LAT)
Dwarf birch is common in large parts of Greenland, where it often thrives on heaths, in fell fields, bogs and marshlands. The species is described as a dwarf shrub, but can grow up to 1 m tall.
IDA BOMHOLT DYRHOLM JACOBSEN, 2021
Seernaq (GRL), Oxyria digyna (LAT)
Mountain sorrel grows in damp and gravelly rocky areas, as well as herb slopes and snowfields throughout the country. The edible green leaves have a high vitamin C content and are eaten either raw or stewed.
IDA BOMHOLT DYRHOLM JACOBSEN, 2019
Umerluusaq (GRL), Dryas integrifolia (LAT)
Entireleaf mountain-avens forms cushions of 2‑3 cm in size, of single white flowers. The plant grows on dry and gravelly heaths throughout the country. In East Greenland the closely related white dryas is found.
KATRINE RAUNDRUP. 2006
Niviarsiaq (GRL), Chamaenerion latifolium (LAT)
Dwarf fireweed grows 15‑30 cm tall and has large purple flowers. The edible plant is Greenland’s national flower and grows on gravelly soil throughout the country.
KATRINE RAUNDRUP. 2006
Kuanneq (GRL), Angelica archangelica (LAT)
The garden angelica grows 70‑200 cm tall and with its 10‑20 cm flower heads cannot be mistaken for any other species. The edible plant grows in moist areas and is common in the southern part of Greenland.
ANDERS TVEVAD/BIOFOTO/RITZAU SCANPIX, 1996

Further reading

Read more about Nature and landscape in Greenland

  • Bo Elberling

    (b. 1968) Ph.D. in Geology and dr.scient. in Geography. Professor at the Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen.

  • Jens Fog Jensen

    (b. 1963) Ph.D. in Prehistoric Archeology. Senior Researcher at the National Museum of Denmark.

  • Elmer Topp-Jørgensen

    (b. 1971) MSc. in Biology. Special Consultant at the Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University.

  • Tom Christensen

    (b. 1969) MSc. in Biology. Chief Consultant the Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University.

  • Katrine Raundrup

    (b. 1976) Ph.D. in Biology. Researcher at the Greenland Institute for Natural Resources.